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+ KY Overview of the Hardware
+ C OVERVIEW OF THE HARDWARE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Macintosh and Macintosh Plus computers contain a Motorola MC68000
microprocessor clocked at 7.8336 megahertz, random access memory (RAM),
read-only memory (ROM), and several chips that enable them to communicate
with external devices. There are five I/O devices: the video display; the
sound generator; a Synertek SY6522 Versatile Interface Adapter (VIA) for the
mouse and keyboard; a Zilog Z8530 Serial Communications Controller (SCC) for
serial communication; and an Apple custom chip, called the IWM ("Integrated
Woz Machine") for disk control.
In addition to the five I/O devices found in the Macintosh 128K, 512K, and
512K enhanced (the video display, sound generator, VIA, SCC and IWM), the
Macintosh Plus contains a NCR 5380 Small Computer Standard Interface (SCSI)
chip for high-speed parallel communication with devices such as hard disks.
Features of the Macintosh 512K enhanced (not found in the Macintosh 128K and
512K) are:
* 800K internal disk drive
* 128K ROM
Features of the Macintosh Plus are:
* 800K internal disk drive
* 128K ROM
* SCSI high-speed peripheral port
* 1Mb RAM, expandable to 2Mb, 2.5Mb, or 4Mb.
* 2 Mini-8 connectors for serial ports, replacing the 2 DB-9 connectors
found on the Macintosh 128K, 512K, and 512K enhanced.
* keyboard with built-in cursor keys and numeric keypad
The Macintosh uses memory-mapped I/O, which means that each device in the
system is accessed by reading or writing to specific locations in the
address space of the computer. Each device contains logic that recognizes
when it's being accessed and responds in the appropriate manner.
The MC68000 can directly access 16 megabytes (Mb) of address space. In the
Macintosh, this is divided into four equal sections. The first four Mb are
for RAM, the second four Mb are for ROM, the third are for the SCC, and the
last four are for the IWM and the VIA. Since each of the devices within the
blocks has far fewer than four Mb of individually addressable locations or
registers, the addresses within each block "wrap around" and are repeated
several times within the block.
In the Macintosh Plus, the 16 Mb of addressable space is also divided into
four equal sections. The first four megabytes are for RAM, the second four
megabytes are for ROM and SCSI, the third are for the SCC, and the last four
are for the IWM and the VIA. Since the devices within each block may have
far fewer than four megabytes of individually addressable locations or
registers, the addressing for a device may "wrap around" (a particular
register appears at several different addresses) within its block.
_______________________________________________________________________________
RAM
RAM is the "working memory" of the system. Its base address is address 0.
The first 256 bytes of RAM (addresses 0 through $FF) are used by the MC68000
as exception vectors; these are the addresses of the routines that gain
control whenever an exception such as an interrupt or a trap occurs. (The
summary at the end of this chapter includes a list of all the exception
vectors.) RAM also contains the system and application heaps, the stack, and
other information used by applications. In addition, the following hardware
devices share the use of RAM with the MC68000:
* the video display, which reads the information for the display from
one of two screen buffers
* the sound generator, which reads its information from one of two
sound buffers
* the disk speed controller, which shares its data space with the
sound buffers
The MC68000 accesses to RAM are interleaved (alternated) with the video
display's accesses during the active portion of a screen scan line (video
scanning is described in the next section). The sound generator and disk
speed controller are given the first access after each scan line. At all
other times, the MC68000 has uninterrupted access to RAM, increasing the
average RAM access rate to about 6 megahertz (MHz).
The Macintosh Plus RAM is provided in four packages known as Single In-line
Memory Modules (SIMMs). Each SIMM contains eight surface-mounted Dynamic RAM
(DRAM) chips on a small printed circuit board with electrical "finger"
contacts along one edge. Various RAM configurations are possible depending
on whether two or four SIMMs are used and on the density of the DRAM chips
that are plugged into the SIMMs:
* If the SIMMs contain 256K-bit DRAM chips, two SIMMs will provide 512K
bytes of RAM, or four SIMMs will provide 1Mb of RAM (this is the standard
configuration).
* If the SIMMs contain 1M-bit DRAM chips, two SIMMs will provide 2Mb of
RAM, or four SIMMs will provide 4Mb of RAM.
* If two of the SIMMs contain 1M-bit DRAM chips, and two of the SIMMs
contain 256K-bit DRAM chips, then these four SIMMs will provide 2.5Mb
of RAM. For this configuration, the 1M-bit SIMMs must be placed in the
sockets closest to the 68000 CPU.
Warning: Other configurations, such as a single SIMM or a pair of SIMMs
containing DRAMs of different density, are not allowed. If only
two SIMMs are installed, they must be placed in the sockets closest
to the MC68000.
The SIMMs can be changed by simply releasing one and snapping in another.
However, there are also two resistors on the Macintosh Plus logic board (in
the area labelled "RAM SIZE") which tell the electronics how much RAM is
installed. If two SIMMs are plugged in, resistor R9 (labeled "ONE ROW") must
be installed; if four SIMMs are plugged in, this resistor must be removed.
Resistor R8 (labelled "256K BIT") must be installed if all of the SIMMs
contain 256K-bit DRAM chips. If either two or four of the SIMMs contain
1M-bit chips, resistor R8 must be removed.
Each time you turn on the Macintosh Plus, system software does a memory test
and determines how much RAM is present in the machine. This information is
stored in the global variable MemTop, which contains the address (plus one)
of the last byte in RAM.
_______________________________________________________________________________
ROM
ROM is the system's permanent read-only memory. Its base address, $400000,
is available as the constant romStart and is also stored in the global
variable ROMBase. ROM contains the routines for the Toolbox and Operating
System, and the various system traps. Since the ROM is used exclusively by
the MC68000, it's always accessed at the full processor rate of 7.83 MHz.
The address space reserved for the device I/O contains blocks devoted to
each of the devices within the computer. This region begins at address
$800000 and continues to the highest address at $FFFFFF.
Note: Since the VIA is involved in some way in almost every operation of the
Macintosh, the following sections frequently refer to the VIA and
VIA-related constants. The VIA itself is described later, and all the
constants are listed in the summary at the end of this chapter.
The Macintosh Plus contains two 512K-bit (64K x 8) ROM chips, providing 128K
bytes of ROM. This is the largest size of ROM that can be installed in a
Macintosh 128K, 512K, or 512K enhanced. The Macintosh Plus ROM sockets,
however, can accept ROM chips of up to 1M-bit (128K x 8) in size. A
configuration of two 1M-bit ROM chips would provide 256K bytes of ROM.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The Video Interface
+ C THE VIDEO INTERFACE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The video display is created by a moving electron beam that scans across the
screen, turning on and off as it scans in order to create black and white
pixels. Each pixel is a square, approximately 1/74 inch on a side.
To create a screen image, the electron beam starts at the top left corner of
the screen (see Figure 1). The beam scans horizontally across the screen
from left to right, creating the top line of graphics. When it reaches the
last pixel on the right end of the top line it turns off, and continues past
the last pixel to the physical right edge of the screen. Then it flicks
invisibly back to the left edge and moves down one scan line. After tracing
across the black border, it begins displaying the data in the second scan
line. The time between the display of the rightmost pixel on one line and
the leftmost pixel on the next is called the horizontal blanking interval.
When the electron beam reaches the last pixel of the last (342nd) line on
the screen, it traces out to the right edge and then flicks up to the top
left corner, where it traces the left border and then begins once again to
display the top line. The time between the last pixel on the bottom line and
the first one on the top line is called the vertical blanking interval. At
the beginning of the vertical blanking interval, the VIA generates a
vertical blanking interrupt.
The pixel clock rate (the frequency at which pixels are displayed) is
15.6672 MHz, or about .064 microseconds (usec) per pixel. For each scan
line, 512 pixels are drawn on the screen, requiring 32.68 usec. The
horizontal blanking interval takes the time of an additional 192 pixels, or
12.25 usec. Thus, each full scan line takes 44.93 usec, which means the
horizontal scan rate is 22.25 kilohertz.
***Refer to Figure 1.***
Figure 1-Video Scanning Pattern
A full screen display consists of 342 horizontal scan lines, occupying
15367.65 usec, or about 15.37 milliseconds (msec). The vertical blanking
interval takes the time of an additional 28 scan lines-1258.17 usec, or
about 1.26 msec. This means the full screen is redisplayed once every
16625.8 usec. That's about 16.6 msec per frame, which means the vertical
scan rate (the full screen display frequency) is 60.15 hertz.
The video generator uses 21,888 bytes of RAM to compose a bit-mapped video
image 512 pixels wide by 342 pixels tall. Each bit in this range controls a
single pixel in the image: A 0 bit is white, and a 1 bit is black.
There are two screen buffers (areas of memory from which the video circuitry
can read information to create a screen display): the main buffer and the
alternate buffer. The starting addresses of the screen buffers depend on
how much memory you have in your Macintosh. In a Macintosh 128K, the main
screen buffer starts at $1A700 and the alternate buffer starts at $12700;
for a 512K Macintosh, add $60000 to these numbers.
Warning: To be sure you don't use the wrong area of memory and to maintain
compatibility with future Macintosh systems, you should get the
video base address and bit map dimensions from screenBits (see
the QuickDraw chapter).
Each scan line of the screen displays the contents of 32 consecutive words
of memory, each word controlling 16 horizontally adjacent pixels. In each
word, the high-order bit (bit 15) controls the leftmost pixel and the
low-order bit (bit 0) controls the rightmost pixel. The first word in each
scan line follows the last word on the line above it. The starting address
of the screen is thus in the top left corner, and the addresses progress
from there to the right and down, to the last byte in the extreme bottom
right corner.
Normally, the video display doesn't flicker when you read from or write to
it, because the video memory accesses are interleaved with the processor
accesses. But if you're creating an animated image by repeatedly drawing the
graphics in quick succession, it may appear to flicker if the electron beam
displays it when your program hasn't finished updating it, showing some of
the new image and some of the old in the same frame.
One way to prevent flickering when you're updating the screen continuously
is to use the vertical and horizontal blanking signals to synchronize your
updates to the scanning of video memory. Small changes to your screen can be
completed entirely during the interval between frames (the first 1.26 msec
following a vertical blanking interrupt), when nothing is being displayed on
the screen. When making larger changes, the trick is to keep your changes
happening always ahead of the spot being displayed by the electron beam, as
it scans byte by byte through the video memory. Changes you make in the
memory already passed over by the scan spot won't appear until the next
frame. If you start changing your image when the vertical blanking interrupt
occurs, you have 1.26 msec of unrestricted access to the image. After that,
you can change progressively less and less of your image as it's scanned
onto the screen, starting from the top (the lowest video memory address).
From vertical blanking interrupt, you have only 1.26 msec in which to change
the first (lowest address) screen location, but you have almost 16.6 msec to
change the last (highest address) screen location.
Another way to create smooth, flicker-free graphics, especially useful with
changes that may take more 16.6 msec, is to use the two screen buffers as
alternate displays. If you draw into the one that's currently not being
displayed, and then switch the buffers during the next vertical blanking,
your graphics will change all at once, producing a clean animation. (See the
Vertical Retrace Manager chapter to find out how to specify tasks to be
performed during vertical blanking.)
If you want to use the alternate screen buffer, you'll have to specify this
to the Segment Loader (see the Segment Loader chapter for details). To
switch to the alternate screen buffer, clear the following bit of VIA data
register A (vBase+vBufA):
vPage2 .EQU 6 ;0 = alternate screen buffer
For example:
BCLR #vPage2,vBase+vBufA
To switch back to the main buffer, set the same bit.
Warning: Whenever you change a bit in a VIA data register, be sure to
leave the other bits in the register unchanged.
Warning: The alternate screen buffer may not be supported in future
versions of the Macintosh.
The starting addresses of the Macintosh Plus screen buffers depend on the
amount of memory present in the machine. The following table shows the
starting address of the main and the alternate screen buffer for various
memory configurations of the Macintosh Plus:
System Main Screen Alternate
Macintosh Plus, 1Mb $FA700 $F2700
Macintosh Plus, 2Mb $1FA700 $1F2700
Macintosh Plus, 2.5Mb $27A700 $272700
Macintosh Plus, 4Mb $3FA700 $3F2700
Warning: To ensure that software will run on Macintoshes of different memory
size, as well as on future Macintoshes, use the address stored in
the global variable ScrnBase. Also, the alternate screen buffer may
not be available in future versions of the Macintosh and may not be
found in some software configurations of current Macintoshes.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The Sound Generator
+ C THE SOUND GENERATOR MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Macintosh sound circuitry uses a series of values taken from an area of
RAM to create a changing waveform in the output signal. This signal drives a
small speaker inside the Macintosh and is connected to the external sound
jack on the back of the computer. If a plug is inserted into the external
sound jack, the internal speaker is disabled. The external sound line can
drive a load of 600 or more ohms, such as the input of almost any audio
amplifier, but not a directly connected external speaker.
The sound generator may be turned on or off by writing 1 (off) or 0 (on) to
the following bit of VIA data register B (vBase+vBufB):
vSndEnb .EQU 7 ;0 = sound enabled, 1 = disabled
For example:
BSET #vSndEnb,vBase+vBufB ;turn off sound
By storing a range of values in the sound buffer, you can create the
corresponding waveform in the sound channel. The sound generator uses a form
of pulse-width encoding to create sounds. The sound circuitry reads one word
in the sound buffer during each horizontal blanking interval (including the
"virtual" intervals during vertical blanking) and uses the high-order byte
of the word to generate a pulse of electricity whose duration (width) is
proportional to the value in the byte. Another circuit converts this pulse
into a voltage that's attenuated (reduced) by a three-bit value from the
VIA. This reduction corresponds to the current setting of the volume level.
To set the volume directly, store a three-bit number in the low-order bits
of VIA data register A (vBase+vBufA). You can use the following constant to
isolate the bits involved:
vSound .EQU 7 ;sound volume bits
Here's an example of how to set the sound level:
MOVE.B vBase+vBufA,D0 ;get current value of register A
ANDI.B #255-vSound,D0 ;clear the sound bits
ORI.B #3,D0 ;set medium sound level
MOVE.B D0,vBase+vBufA ;put the data back
After attenuation, the sound signal is passed to the audio output line. The
sound circuitry scans the sound buffer at a fixed rate of 370 words per
video frame, repeating the full cycle 60.15 times per second. To create
sounds with frequencies other than multiples of the basic scan rate, you
must store phase-shifted patterns into the sound buffer between each scan.
You can use the vertical and horizontal blanking signals (available in the
VIA) to synchronize your sound buffer updates to the buffer scan. You may
find that it's much easier to use the routines in the Sound Driver to do
these functions.
Warning: The low-order byte of each word in the sound buffer is used to
control the speed of the motor in the disk drive. Don't store
any information there, or you'll interfere with the disk I/O.
There are two sound buffers, just as there are two screen buffers. The
address of the main sound buffer is stored in the global variable SoundBase
and is also available as the constant soundLow. The main sound buffer is at
$1FD00 in a 128K Macintosh, and the alternate buffer is at $1A100; for a
512K Macintosh, add $60000 to these values. Each sound buffer contains 370
words of data. As when you want to use the alternate screen buffer, you'll
have to specify to the Segment Loader that you want the alternate buffer
(see the Segment Loader chapter for details). To select the alternate sound
buffer for output, clear the following bit of VIA data register A
(vBase+vBufA):
vSndPg2 .EQU 3 ;0 = alternate sound buffer
To return to the main buffer, set the same bit.
Warning: Be sure to switch back to the main sound buffer before doing a
disk access, or the disk won't work properly.
Warning: The alternate sound buffer may not be supported in future
versions of the Macintosh.
There's another way to generate a simple, square-wave tone of any frequency,
using almost no processor intervention. To do this, first load a constant
value into all 370 sound buffer locations (use $00's for minumum volume,
$FF's for maximum volume). Next, load a value into the VIA's timer 1
latches, and set the high-order two bits of the VIA's auxiliary control
register (vBase+vACR) for "square wave output" from timer 1. The timer will
then count down from the latched value at 1.2766 usec/count, over and over,
inverting the vSndEnb bit of VIA register B (vBase+vBufB) after each count
down. This takes the constant voltage being generated from the sound buffer
and turns it on and off, creating a square-wave sound whose period is
2 * 1.2766 usec * timer 1's latched value
Note: You may want to disable timer 1 interrupts during this process (bit 6
in the VIA's interrupt enable register, which is at vBase+vIER).
To stop the square-wave sound, reset the high-order two bits of the
auxiliary control register.
Note: See the SY6522 technical specifications for details of the VIA
registers. See also "Sound Driver Hardware" in the Sound Driver
chapter.
Figure 2 shows a block diagram for the sound port.
The starting addresses of the Macintosh Plus sound buffers depend on the
amount of memory present in the machine. The following table shows the
starting address of the main and the alternate sound buffer for various
memory configurations of the Macintosh Plus:
System Main Sound Alternate
Macintosh Plus, 1Mb $FFD00 $FA100
Macintosh Plus, 2Mb $1FFD00 $1FA100
Macintosh Plus, 2.5Mb $27FD00 $27A100
Macintosh Plus, 4Mb $3FFD00 $3FA100
Warning: To ensure that software will run on Macintoshes of different memory
size, as well as future Macintoshes, use the address stored in the
global variable SoundBase. Also, the alternate sound buffer may not
be available in future versions of the Macintosh and may not be found
in some software configurations of current Macintoshes.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The SCC
+ C THE SCC MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The two serial ports are controlled by a Zilog Z8530 Serial Communications
Controller (SCC). The port known as SCC port A is the one with the modem
icon on the back of the Macintosh. SCC port B is the one with the printer
icon.
Macintosh serial ports conform to the EIA standard RS422, which differs from
the more common RS232C standard. While RS232C modulates a signal with
respect to a common ground ("single-ended" transmission), RS422 modulates
two signals against each other ("differential" transmission). The RS232C
receiver senses whether the received signal is sufficiently negative with
respect to ground to be a logic "1", whereas the RS422 receiver simply
senses which line is more negative than the other. This makes RS422 more
immune to noise and interference, and more versatile over longer distances.
If you ground the positive side of each RS422 receiver and leave unconnected
the positive side of each transmitter, you've converted to EIA standard
RS423, which can be used to communicate with most RS232C devices over
distances up to fifty feet or so.
***Refer to Figure 2.***
Figure 2-Diagram of Sound Port
The serial inputs and outputs of the SCC are connected to the ports through
differential line drivers (26LS30) and receivers (26LS32). The line drivers
can be put in the high-impedance mode between transmissions, to allow other
devices to transmit over those lines. A driver is activated by lowering the
SCC's Request To Send (RTS) output for that port. Port A and port B are
identical except that port A (the modem port) has a higher interrupt
priority, making it more suitable for high-speed communication.
Figure 3 shows the DB-9 pinout for the SCC output jacks.
***Refer to Figure 3.***
Figure 3-Pinout for SCC Output Jacks
Warning: Do not draw more than 100 milliamps at +12 volts, and
200 milliamps at +5 volts from all connectors combined.
Each port's input-only handshake line (pin 7) is connected to the SCC's
Clear To Send (CTS) input for that port, and is designed to accept an
external device's Data Terminal Ready (DTR) handshake signal. This line is
also connected to the SCC's external synchronous clock (TRxC) input for that
port, so that an external device can perform high-speed synchronous data
exchange. Note that you can't use the line for receiving DTR if you're using
it to receive a high-speed data clock.
The handshake line is sensed by the Macintosh using the positive
(noninverting) input of one of the standard RS422 receivers (26LS32 chip),
with the negative input grounded. The positive input was chosen because
this configuration is more immune to noise when no active device is
connected to pin 7.
Note: Because this is a differential receiver, any handshake or clock signal
driving it must be "bi-polar", alternating between a positive voltage
and a negative voltage, with respect to the internally grounded negative
input. If a device tries to use ground (0 volts) as one of its handshake
logic levels, the Macintosh will receive that level as an indeterminate
state, with unpredicatbale results.
The SCC itself (at its PCLK pin) is clocked at 3.672 megahertz. The internal
synchronous clock (RTxC) pins for both ports are also connected to this
3.672 MHz clock. This is the clock that, after dividing by 16, is normally
fed to the SCC's internal baud-rate generator.
The SCC chip generates level-2 processor interrupts during I/O over the
serial lines. For more information about SCC interrupts, see the Device
Manager chapter.
The locations of the SCC control and data lines are given in the following
table as offsets from the constant sccWBase for writes, or sccRBase for
reads. These base addresses are also available in the global variables SCCWr
and SCCRd. The SCC is on the upper byte of the data bus, so you must use
only even-addressed byte reads (a byte read of an odd SCC read address tries
to reset the entire SCC). When writing, however, you must use only
odd-addressed byte writes (the MC68000 puts your data on both bytes of the
bus, so it works correctly). A word access to any SCC address will shift the
phase of the computer's high-frequency timing by 128 nanoseconds (system
software adjusts it correctly during the system startup process).
Location Contents
sccWBase+aData Write data register A
sccRBase+aData Read data register A
sccWBase+bData Write data register B
sccRBase+bData Read data register B
sccWBase+aCtl Write control register A
sccRBase+aCtl Read control register A
sccWBase+bCtl Write control register B
sccRBase+bCtl Read control register B
Warning: Don't access the SCC chip more often than once every 2.2 usec. The
SCC requires that much time to let its internal lines stabilize.
Refer to the technical specifications of the Zilog Z8530 for the detailed
bit maps and control methods (baud rates, protocols, and so on) of the SCC.
Figure 4 shows a circuit diagram for the serial ports.
***Refer to Figure 4.***
Figure 4-Diagram of Serial Ports
The Macintosh Plus uses two Mini-8 connectors for the two serial ports,
replacing the two DB-9 connectors used for the serial ports on the Macintosh
128K, 512K, and 512K enhanced.
The Mini-8 connectors provide an output handshake signal, but do not provide
the +5 volts and +12 volts found on the Macintosh 128K, 512K, and 512K
enhanced serial ports.
The output handshake signal for each Macintosh Plus serial port originates
at the SCC's Data Terminal Ready (DTR) output for that port, and is driven
by an RS423 line driver. Other signals provided include input
handshake/external clock, Transmit Data + and -, and Receive Data + and -.
Figure 5 shows the Mini-8 pinout for the SCC serial connectors.
***Refer to Figure 5.***
Figure 5-Pinout for SCC Serial Connectors
Figure 6 shows a circuit diagram for the Macintosh Plus serial ports.
***Refer to Figure 6.***
Figure 6-Circuit Diagram for the Macintosh Plus Serial Ports
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The.Mouse
+ C THE MOUSE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The DB-9 connector labeled with the mouse icon connects to the Apple mouse
(Apple II, Apple III, Lisa, and Macintosh mice are electrically identical).
The mouse generates four square-wave signals that describe the amount and
direction of the mouse's travel. Interrupt-driven routines in the Macintosh
ROM convert this information into the corresponding motion of the pointer on
the screen. By turning an option called mouse scaling on or off in the
Control Panel desk accessory, the user can change the amount of screen
pointer motion that corresponds to a given mouse motion, depending on how
fast the mouse is moved; for more information about mouse scaling, see the
discussion of parameter RAM in the Operating System Utilities chapter.
Note: The mouse is a relative-motion device; that is, it doesn't report
where it is, only how far and in which direction it's moving. So if
you want to connect graphics tablets, touch screens, light pens, or
other absolute-position devices to the mouse port, you must either
convert their coordinates into motion information or install your
own device-handling routines.
The mouse operates by sending square-wave trains of information to the
Macintosh that change as the velocity and direction of motion change. The
rubber-coated steel ball in the mouse contacts two capstans, each connected
to an interrupter wheel: Motion along the mouse's X axis rotates one of the
wheels and motion along the Y axis rotates the other wheel.
The Macintosh uses a scheme known as quadrature to detect which direction
the mouse is moving along each axis. There's a row of slots on an
interrupter wheel, and two beams of infrared light shine through the slots,
each one aimed at a phototransistor detector. The detectors are offset just
enough so that, as the wheel turns, they produce two square-wave signals
(called the interrupt signal and the quadrature signal) 90 degrees out of
phase. The quadrature signal precedes the interrupt signal by 90 degrees
when the wheel turns one way, and trails it when the wheel turns the other
way.
The interrupt signals, X1 and Y1, are connected to the SCC's DCDA and DCDB
inputs, respectively, while the quadrature signals, X2 and Y2, go to inputs
of the VIA's data register B. When the Macintosh is interrupted (from the
SCC) by the rising edge of a mouse interrupt signal, it checks the VIA for
the state of the quadrature signal for that axis: If it's low, the mouse is
moving to the left (or down), and if it's high, the mouse is moving to the
right (or up). When the SCC interrupts on the falling edge, a high
quadrature level indicates motion to the left (or down) and a low quadrature
level indicates motion to the right (or up):
SCC VIA Mouse
Mouse interrupt Mouse quadrature Motion direction in
X1 (or Y1) X2 (or Y2) X (or Y) axis
Positive edge Low Left (or down)
High Right (or up)
Negative edge Low Right (or up)
High Left (or down)
Figure 7 shows the interrupt (Y1) and quadrature (Y2) signals when the mouse
is moved downwards.
The switch on the mouse is a pushbutton that grounds pin 7 on the mouse
connector when pressed. The state of the button is checked by software
during each vertical blanking interrupt. The small delay between each check
is sufficient to debounce the button. You can look directly at the mouse
button's state by examining the following bit of VIA data register B
(vBase+vBufB):
vSW .EQU 3 ;0 = mouse button is down
If the bit is clear, the mouse button is down. However, it's recommended
that you let the Operating System handle this for you through the event
mechanism.
Figure 8 shows the DB-9 pinout for the mouse jack at the back of the Macintosh.
***Refer to Figure 7.***
Figure 7-Mouse Mechanism
***Refer to Figure 8.***
Figure 8-Pinout for Mouse Jack
Warning: Do not draw more than 200 milliamps at +5 volts from all
connectors combined.
Figure 9 shows a circuit diagram for the mouse port.
***Refer to Figure 9.***
Figure 9-Diagram of Mouse Port
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The Keyboard and Keypad
+ C THE KEYBOARD AND KEYPAD MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Macintosh keyboard and numeric keypad each contain an Intel 8021
microprocessor that scans the keys. The 8021 contains ROM and RAM, and is
programmed to conform to the interface protocol described below.
The keyboard plugs into the Macintosh through a four-wire RJ-11
telephone-style jack. If a numeric keypad is installed in the system, the
keyboard plugs into it and it in turn plugs into the Macintosh. Figure 10
shows the pinout for the keyboard jack on the Macintosh, on the keyboard
itself, and on the numeric keypad.
***Refer to Figure 10.***
Figure 10-Pinout for Keyboard Jack
Warning: Do not draw more than 200 milliamps at +5 volts from all
connectors combined.
The Macintosh Plus keyboard, which includes a built-in numeric keypad,
contains a microprocessor that scans the keys. The microprocessor contains
ROM and RAM, and is programmed to conform to the same keyboard interface
protocol described below.
The Macintosh Plus keyboard reproduces all of the key-down transitions
produced by the keyboard and optional keypad used by the Macintosh 128K,
512K, and 512K enhanced; the Macintosh Plus keyboard is also completely
compatible with these other machines. If a key transition occurs for a key
that used to be on the optional keypad in lowercase, the Macintosh Plus
keyboard still responds to an Inquiry command by sending back the Keypad
response ($79) to the Macintosh Plus. If a key transition occurs for an key
that used to be on the optional keypad in uppercase, the Macintosh Plus
keyboard responds to an Inquiry command by sending back the Shift Key-down
Transition response ($71), followed by the Keypad response ($79). The
responses for key-down transitions on the original Macintosh and Macintosh
Plus are shown (in hexadecimal) in Figure 11.
***Refer to Figure 11.***
Figure 11-Key-Down Transitions
_______________________________________________________________________________
Keyboard Communication Protocol
The keyboard data line is bidirectional and is driven by whatever device is
sending data. The keyboard clock line is driven by the keyboard only. All
data transfers are synchronous with the keyboard clock. Each transmission
consists of eight bits, with the highest-order bits first.
When sending data to the Macintosh, the keyboard clock transmits eight
330-usec cycles (160 usec low, 170 usec high) on the normally high clock
line. It places the data bit on the data line 40 usec before the falling
edge of the clock line and maintains it for 330 usec. The data bit is
clocked into the Macintosh's VIA shift register on the rising edge of the
keyboard clock cycle.
When the Macintosh sends data to the keyboard, the keyboard clock transmits
eight 400-usec cycles (180 usec low, 220 usec high) on the clock line. On
the falling edge of the keyboard clock cycle, the Macintosh places the data
bit on the data line and holds it there for 400 usec. The keyboard reads the
data bit 80 usec after the rising edge of the keyboard clock cycle.
Only the Macintosh can initiate communication over the keyboard lines. On
power-up of either the Macintosh or the keyboard, the Macintosh is in
charge, and the external device is passive. The Macintosh signals that it's
ready to begin communication by pulling the keyboard data line low. Upon
detecting this, the keyboard starts clocking and the Macintosh sends a
command. The last bit of the command leaves the keyboard data line low; the
Macintosh then indicates it's ready to receive the keyboard's response by
setting the data line high.
The first command the Macintosh sends out is the Model Number command. The
keyboard's response to this command is to reset itself and send back its
model number to the Macintosh. If no response is received for 1/2 second,
the Macintosh tries the Model Number command again. Once the Macintosh has
successfully received a model number from the keyboard, normal operation can
begin. The Macintosh sends the Inquiry command; the keyboard sends back a
Key Transition response if a key has been pressed or released. If no key
transition has occurred after 1/4 second, the keyboard sends back a Null
response to let the Macintosh know it's still there. The Macintosh then
sends the Inquiry command again. In normal operation, the Macintosh sends
out an Inquiry command every 1/4 second. If it receives no response within
1/2 second, it assumes the keyboard is missing or needs resetting, so it
begins again with the Model Number command.
There are two other commands the Macintosh can send: the Instant command,
which gets an instant keyboard status without the 1/4-second timeout, and
the Test command, to perform a keyboard self-test. Here's a list of the
commands that can be sent from the Macintosh to the keyboard:
Command name Value Keyboard response
Inquiry $10 Key Transition code or Null ($7B)
Instant $14 Key Transition code or Null ($7B)
Model Number $16 Bit 0: 1
Bits 1-3: keyboard model number, 1-8
Bits 4-6: next device number, 1-8
Bit 7: 1 if another device connected
Test $36 ACK ($7D) or NAK ($77)
The Key Transition responses are sent out by the keyboard as a single byte:
Bit 7 high means a key-up transition, and bit 7 low means a key-down. Bit 0
is always high. The Key Transition responses for key-down transitions on
the keyboard are shown (in hexadecimal) in Figure 12. Note that these
response codes are different from the key codes returned by the keyboard
driver software. The keyboard driver strips off bit 7 of the response and
shifts the result one bit to the right, removing bit 0. For example,
response code $33 becomes $19, and $2B becomes $15.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Keypad Communication Protocol
When a numeric keypad is used, it must be inserted between the keyboard and
the Macintosh; that is, the keypad cable plugs into the jack on the front of
the Macintosh, and the keyboard cable plugs into a jack on the numeric
keypad. In this configuration, the timings and protocol for the clock and
data lines work a little differently: The keypad acts like a keyboard when
communicating with the Macintosh, and acts like a Macintosh when
communicating over the separate clock and data lines going to the keyboard.
All commands from the Macintosh are now received by the keypad instead of
the keyboard, and only the keypad can communicate directly with the
keyboard.
When the Macintosh sends out an Inquiry command, one of two things may
happen, depending on the state of the keypad. If no key transitions have
occurred on the keypad since the last Inquiry, the keypad sends an Inquiry
command to the keyboard and, later, retransmits the keyboard's response back
to the Macintosh. But if a key transition has occurred on the keypad, the
keypad responds to an Inquiry by sending back the Keypad response ($79) to
the Macintosh. In that case, the Macintosh immediately sends an Instant
command, and this time the keypad sends back its own Key Transition
response. As with the keyboard, bit 7 high means key-up and bit 7 low means
key-down.
The Key Transition responses for key-down transitions on the keypad are shown in
Figure 12.
***Refer to Figure 12.***
Figure 12-Key-Down Transitions
Again, note that these response codes are different from the key codes
returned by the keyboard driver software. The keyboard driver strips off bit
7 of the response and shifts the result one bit to the right, removing bit
0.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The Floppy Disk Interface
+ C THE FLOPPY DISK INTERFACE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Macintosh disk interface uses a design similar to that used on the Apple
II and Apple III computers, employing the Apple custom IWM chip. Another
custom chip called the Analog Signal Generator (ASG) reads the disk speed
buffer in RAM and generates voltages that control the disk speed. Together
with the VIA, the IWM and the ASG generate all the signals necessary to
read, write, format, and eject the 3 1/2-inch disks used by the Macintosh.
The Macintosh Plus has an internal double-sided disk drive; an external double-sided
drive or the older single-sided drive, can be attached as well.
Note: The external double-sided drive can be attached to a Macintosh 512K
through the back of a Hard Disk 20. The Hard Disk 20 start-up software
contains a device driver for this drive and the hierarchical (128K ROM)
version of the File Manager.
The double-sided drive can format, read, and write both 800K double-sided
disks and 400K single-sided disks. The operation of the drive with
double-sided disks differs from that on single-sided disks. With
double-sided disks, a single mechanism positions two read/write heads-one
above the disk and one below-so that the drive can access two tracks
simultaneously-one on the top side, and a second, directly beneath the
first, on the bottom side. This lets the drive read or write two complete
tracks of information before it has to move the heads, significantly
reducing access time. For 400K disks, the double-sided drive restricts
itself to one side of the disk.
Warning: Applications (for instance, copy protection schemes) should never
interfere with, or depend on, disk speed control. The double-sided
drive controls its own motor speed, ignoring the speed signal (PWM)
from the Analog Signal Generator (ASG).
The IWM controls four of the disk state-control lines (called CA0, CA1, CA2,
and LSTRB), chooses which drive (internal or external) to enable, and
processes the disk's read-data and write-data signals. The VIA provides
another disk state-control line called SEL.
A buffer in RAM (actually the low-order bytes of words in the sound buffer)
is read by the ASG to generate a pulse-width modulated signal that's used to
control the speed of the disk motor. The Macintosh Operating System uses
this speed control to allow it to store more sectors of information in the
tracks closer to the edge of the disk by running the disk motor at slower
speeds.
Figure 13 shows the DB-19 pinout for the external disk jack at the back of
the Macintosh.
***Refer to Figure 13.***
Figure 13-Pinout for Disk Jack
Warning: This connector was designed for a Macintosh 3 1/2-inch disk drive,
which represents a load of 500 milliamps at +12 volts, 500 milliamps
at +5 volts, and 0 milliamps at -12 volts. If any other device uses
this connector, it must not exceed these loads by more than 100
milliamps at +12 volts, 200 milliamps at +5 volts, and 10 milliamps
at -12 volts, including loads from all other connectors combined.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Controlling the Disk State-Control Lines
The IWM contains registers that can be used by the software to control the
state-control lines leading out to the disk. By reading or writing certain
memory locations, you can turn these state-control lines on or off. Other
locations set various IWM internal states. The locations are given in the
following table as offsets from the constant dBase, the base address of the
IWM; this base address is also available in a global variable named IWM. The
IWM is on the lower byte of the data bus, so use odd-addressed byte accesses
only.
Location to Location to
IWM line turn line on turn line off
Disk state-control lines:
CA0 dBase+ph0H dBase+ph0L
CA1 dBase+ph1H dBase+ph1L
CA2 dBase+ph2H dBase+ph2L
LSTRB dBase+ph3H dBase+ph3L
Disk enable line:
ENABLE dBase+motorOn dBase+motorOff
IWM internal states:
SELECT dBase+extDrive dBase+intDrive
Q6 dBase+q6H dBase+q6L
Q7 dBase+q7H dBase+q7L
To turn one of the lines on or off, do any kind of memory byte access (read
or write) to the respective location.
The CA0, CA1, and CA2 lines are used along with the SEL line from the VIA to
select from among the registers and data signals in the disk drive. The
LSTRB line is used when writing control information to the disk registers
(as described below), and the ENABLE line enables the selected disk drive.
SELECT is an IWM internal line that chooses which disk drive can be enabled:
On selects the external drive, and off selects the internal drive. The Q6
and Q7 lines are used to set up the internal state of the IWM for reading
disk register information, as well as for reading or writing actual
disk-storage data.
You can read information from several registers in the disk drive to find
out whether the disk is locked, whether a disk is in the drive, whether the
head is at track 0, how many heads the drive has, and whether there's a
drive connected at all. In turn, you can write to some of these registers to
step the head, turn the motor on or off, and eject the disk.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Reading from the Disk Registers
Before you can read from any of the disk registers, you must set up the
state of the IWM so that it can pass the data through to the MC68000's
memory space where you'll be able to read it. To do that, you must first
turn off Q7 by reading or writing dBase+q7L. Then turn on Q6 by accessing
dBase+q6H. After that, the IWM will be able to pass data from the disk's
RD/SENSE line through to you.
Once you've set up the IWM for disk register access, you must next select
which register you want to read. To read one of the disk registers, first
enable the drive you want to use (by accessing dBase+intDrive or
dBase+extDrive and then dBase+motorOn) and make sure LSTRB is low. Then set
CA0, CA1, CA2, and SEL to address the register you want. Once this is done,
you can read the disk register data bit in the high-order bit of dBase+q7L.
After you've read the data, you may read another disk register by again
setting the proper values in CA0, CA1, CA2, and SEL, and then reading
dBase+q7L.
Warning: When you're finished reading data from the disk registers, it's
important to leave the IWM in a state that the Disk Driver will
recognize. To be sure it's in a valid logic state, always turn Q6
back off (by accessing dBase+q6L) after you've finished reading
the disk registers.
The Following table shows how you must set the disk state-control lines to
read from the various disk registers and data signals:
State-control lines Register
CA2 CA1 CA0 SEL addressed Information in register
0 0 0 0 DIRTN Head step direction
0 0 0 1 CSTIN Disk in place
0 0 1 0 STEP Disk head stepping
0 0 1 1 WRTPRT Disk locked
0 1 0 0 MOTORON Disk motor running
0 1 0 1 TKO Head at track 0
0 1 1 1 TACH Tachometer
1 0 0 0 RDDATA0 Read data, lower head
1 0 0 1 RDDATA1 Read data, upper head
1 1 0 0 SIDES Single- or double-sided drive
1 1 1 1 DRVIN Drive installed
_______________________________________________________________________________
Writing to the Disk Registers
To write to a disk register, first be sure that LSTRB is off, then turn on
CA0 and CA1. Next, set SEL to 0. Set CA0 and CA1 to the proper values from
the table below, then set CA2 to the value you want to write to the disk
register. Hold LSTRB high for at least one usec but not more than one msec
(unless you're ejecting a disk) and bring it low again. Be sure that you
don't change CA0-CA2 or SEL while LSTRB is high, and that CA0 and CA1 are
set high before changing SEL.
The following table shows how you must set the disk state-control lines to
write to the various disk registers:
Control lines Register
CA1 CA0 SEL addressed Register function
0 0 0 DIRTN Set stepping direction
0 1 0 STEP Step disk head one track
1 0 0 MOTORON Turn on/off disk motor
1 1 0 EJECT Eject the disk
_______________________________________________________________________________
Explanations of the Disk Registers
The information written to or read from the various disk registers can be
interpreted as follows:
* The DIRTN signal sets the direction of subsequent head stepping:
0 causes steps to go toward the inside track (track 79),
1 causes them to go toward the outside track (track 0).
* CSTIN is 0 only when a disk is in the drive.
* Setting STEP to 0 steps the head one full track in the direction
last set by DIRTN. When the step is complete (about 12 msec), the
disk drive sets STEP back to 1, and then you can step again.
* WRTPRT is 0 whenever the disk is locked. Do not write to a disk
unless WRTPRT is 1.
* MOTORON controls the state of the disk motor: 0 turns on the motor,
and 1 turns it off. The motor will run only if the drive is enabled
and a disk is in place; otherwise, writing to this line will have no
effect.
* TKO goes to 0 only if the head is at track 0. This is valid beginning
12 msec after the step that puts it at track 0.
* Writing 1 to EJECT ejects the disk from the drive. To eject a disk,
you must hold LSTRB high for at least 1/2 second.
* The current disk speed is available as a pulse train on TACH. The TACH
line produces 60 pulses for each rotation of the drive motor. The disk
motor speed is controlled by the ASG as it reads the disk speed RAM buffer.
* RDDATA0 and RDDATA1 carry the instantaneous data from the disk head.
* SIDES is always 0 on single-sided drives and 1 on double-sided drives.
* DRVIN is always 0 if the selected disk drive is physically connected to
the Macintosh, otherwise it floats to 1.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The Real-Time Clock
+ C THE REAL-TIME CLOCK MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Macintosh real-time clock is a custom chip whose interface lines are
available through the VIA. The clock contains a four-byte counter that's
incremented once each second, as well as a line that can be used by the VIA
to generate an interrupt once each second. It also contains 20 bytes of RAM
that are powered by a battery when the Macintosh is turned off. These RAM
bytes, called parameter RAM, contain important data that needs to be
preserved even when the system power is not available. The Operating System
maintains a copy of parameter RAM that you can access in low memory. To
find out how to use the values in parameter RAM, see the Operating System
Utilities chapter.
The Macintosh Plus real-time clock is a new custom chip. The commands
described below for accessing the Macintosh 512K clock chip are also used to
access the new chip. The new chip includes additional parameter RAM that's
reserved by Apple. The parameter RAM information provided in the Operating
System Utilities chapter, as well as the descriptions of the routines used
for accessing that information, apply for the new clock chip as well.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Accessing the Clock Chip
The clock is accessed through the following bits of VIA data register B
(vBase+vBufB):
rTCData .EQU 0 ;real-time clock serial data line
rTCClk .EQU 1 ;real-time clock data-clock line
rTCEnb .EQU 2 ;real-time clock serial enable
These three bits constitute a simple serial interface. The rTCData bit is a
bidirectional serial data line used to send command and data bytes back and
forth. The rTCClk bit is a data-clock line, always driven by the processor
(you set it high or low yourself) that regulates the transmission of the
data and command bits. The rTCEnb bit is the serial enable line, which
signals the real-time clock that the processor is about to send it serial
commands and data.
To access the clock chip, you must first enable its serial function. To do
this, set the serial enable line (rTCEnb) to 0. Keep the serial enable line
low during the entire transaction; if you set it to 1, you'll abort the
transfer.
Warning: Be sure you don't alter any of bits 3-7 of VIA data register
B during clock serial access.
A command can be either a write request or a read request. After the eight
bits of a write request, the clock will expect the next eight bits across
the serial data line to be your data for storage into one of the internal
registers of the clock. After receiving the eight bits of a read request,
the clock will respond by putting eight bits of its data on the serial data
line. Commands and data are transferred serially in eight-bit groups over
the serial data line, with the high-order bit first and the low-order bit
last.
To send a command to the clock, first set the rTCData bit of VIA data
direction register B (vBase+vDirB) so that the real-time clock's serial data
line will be used for output to the clock. Next, set the rTCClk bit of
vBase+vBufB to 0, then set the rTCData bit to the value of the first
(high-order) bit of your data byte. Then raise (set to 1) the data-clock bit
(rTCClk). Then lower the data-clock, set the serial data line to the next
bit, and raise the data-clock line again. After the last bit of your command
has been sent in this way, you can either continue by sending your data byte
in the same way (if your command was a write request) or switch to receiving
a data byte from the clock (if your command was a read request).
To receive a byte of data from the clock, you must first send a command
that's a read request. After you've clocked out the last bit of the command,
clear the rTCData bit of the data direction register so that the real-time
clock's serial data line can be used for input from the clock; then lower
the data-clock bit (rTCClk) and read the first (high-order) bit of the
clock's data byte on the serial data line. Then raise the data-clock, lower
it again, and read the next bit of data. Continue this until all eight bits
are read, then raise the serial enable line (rTCEnb), disabling the data
transfer.
The following table lists the commands you can send to the clock. A 1 in the
high-order bit makes your command a read request; a 0 in the high-order bit
makes your command a write request. (In this table, "z" is the bit that
determines read or write status, and bits marked "a" are bits whose values
depend on what parameter RAM byte you want to address.)
Command byte Register addressed by the command
z0000001 Seconds register 0 (lowest-order byte)
z0000101 Seconds register 1
z0001001 Seconds register 2
z0001101 Seconds register 3 (highest-order byte)
00110001 Test register (write only)
00110101 Write-protect register (write only)
z010aa01 RAM address 100aa ($10-$13)
z1aaaa01 RAM address 0aaaa ($00-$0F)
Note that the last two bits of a command byte must always be 01.
If the high-order bit (bit 7) of the write-protect register is set, this
prevents writing into any other register on the clock chip (including
parameter RAM). Clearing the bit allows you to change any values in any
registers on the chip. Don't try to read from this register; it's a
write-only register.
The two highest-order bits (bits 7 and 6) of the test register are used as
device control bits during testing, and should always be set to 0 during
normal operation. Setting them to anything else will interfere with normal
clock counting. Like the write-protect register, this is a write-only
register; don't try to read from it.
All clock data must be sent as full eight-bit bytes, even if only one or two
bits are of interest. The rest of the bits may not matter, but you must send
them to the clock or the write will be aborted when you raise the serial
enable line.
It's important to use the proper sequence if you're writing to the clock's
seconds registers. If you write to a given seconds register, there's a
chance that the clock may increment the data in the next higher-order
register during the write, causing unpredictable results. To avoid this
possibility, always write to the registers in low-to-high order. Similarly,
the clock data may increment during a read of all four time bytes, which
could cause invalid data to be read. To avoid this, always read the time
twice (or until you get the same value twice).
Warning: When you've finished reading from the clock registers, always end
by doing a final write such as setting the write-protect bit. Failure
to do this may leave the clock in a state that will run down the
battery more quickly than necessary.
_______________________________________________________________________________
The One-Second Interrupt
The clock also generates a VIA interrupt once each second (if this interrupt
is enabled). The enable status for this interrupt can be read from or
written to bit 0 of the VIA's interrupt enable register (vBase+vIER). When
reading the enable register, a 1 bit indicates the interrupt is enabled, and
0 means it's disabled. Writing $01 to the enable register disables the
clock's one-second interrupt (without affecting any other interrupts), while
writing $81 enables it again. See the Device Manager chapter for more
information about writing your own interrupt handlers.
Warning: Be sure when you write to bit 0 of the VIA's interrupt enable
register that you don't change any of the other bits.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The SCSI Interface
+ C THE SCSI INTERFACE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
Note: This section refers to the Macintosh Plus. Earlier Macintosh models
are not equipped with a SCSI interface.
The NCR 5380 Small Computer Standard Interface (SCSI) chip controls a
high-speed parallel port for communicating with up to seven SCSI peripherals
(such as hard disks, streaming tapes, and high speed printers). The
Macintosh Plus SCSI port can be used to implement all of the protocols,
arbitration, interconnections, etc. of the SCSI interface as defined by the
ANSI X3T9.2 committee.
The Macintosh Plus SCSI port differs from the ANSI X3T9.2 standard in two
ways. First, it uses a DB-25 connector instead of the standard 50-pin
ribbon connector. An Apple adapter cable, however, can be used to convert
the DB-25 connector to the standard 50-pin connector. Second, power for
termination resistors is not provided at the SCSI connector nor is a
termination resistor provided in the Macintosh Plus SCSI circuitry.
Warning: Do not connect an RS232 device to the SCSI port. The SCSI interface
is designed to use standard TTL logic levels of 0 and +5 volts;
RS232 devices may impose levels of -25 and +25 volts on some lines,
thereby causing damage to the logic board.
The NCR 5380 interrupt signal is not connected to the processor, but the
progress of a SCSI operation may be determined at any time by examining the
contents of various status registers in the NCR 5380. SCSI data transfers
are performed by the MC68000; pseudo-DMA mode operations can assert the NCR
5380 DMA Acknowledge (DACK) signal by reading or writing to the appropriate
address (see table below). Approximate transfer rates are 142K bytes per
second for nonblind transfers and 312K bytes per second for blind transfers.
(With nonblind transfers, each byte transferred is polled, or checked.)
Figure 14 shows the DB-25 pinout for the SCSI connector at the back of the
Macintosh Plus.
***Refer to Figure 14.***
Figure 14-Pinout for SCSI Connector
The locations of the NCR 5380 control and data registers are given in the
following table as offsets from the constant scsiWr for write operations, or
scsiRd for read operations. These base addresses are not available in global
variables; instead of using absolute addresses, you should use the routines
provided by the SCSI Manager.
Read and write operations must be made in bytes. Read operations must be to
even addresses and write operations must be to odd addresses; otherwise an
undefined operation will result.
The address of each register is computed as follows:
$580drn
where r represents the register number (from 0 through 7),
n determines whether it a read or write operation
(0 for reads, or 1 for writes), and
d determines whether the DACK signal to the NCR 5380 is asserted.
(0 for not asserted, 1 is for asserted)
Here's an example of the address expressed in binary:
0101 1000 0000 00d0 0rrr 000n
Note: Asserting the DACK signal applies only to write operations to
the output data register and read operations from the input
data register.
Symbolic Memory
Location Location NCR 5380 Internal Register
scsiWr+sODR+dackWr $580201 Output Data Register with DACK
scsiRd+sIDR+dackRd $580260 Current SCSI Data with DACK
scsiWr+sODR $580001 Output Data Register
scsiWr+sICR $580011 Initiator Command Register
scsiWr+sMR $580021 Mode Register
scsiWr+sTCR $580031 Target Command Register
scsiWr+sSER $580041 Select Enable Register
scsiWr+sDMAtx $580051 Start DMA Send
scsiWr+sTDMArx $580061 Start DMA Target Receive
scsiWr+sIDMArx $580071 Start DMA Initiator Receive
scsiRd+sCDR $580000 Current SCSI Data
scsiRd+sICR $580010 Initiator Command Register
scsiRd+sMR $580020 Mode Registor
scsiRd+sTCR $580030 Target Command Register
scsiRd+sCSR $580040 Current SCSI Bus Status
scsiRd+sBSR $580050 Bus and Status Register
scsiRd+sIDR $580060 Input Data Register
scsiRd+sRESET $580070 Reset Parity/Interrupt
Note: For more information on the registers and control structure of
the SCSI, consult the technical specifications for the NCR 5380 chip.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY The VIA
+ C THE VIA MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
The Synertek SY6522 Versatile Interface Adapter (VIA) controls the keyboard,
internal real-time clock, parts of the disk, sound, and mouse interfaces,
and various internal Macintosh signals. Its base address is available as the
constant vBase and is also stored in a global variable named VIA. The VIA is
on the upper byte of the data bus, so use even-addressed byte accesses only.
There are two parallel data registers within the VIA, called A and B, each
with a data direction register. There are also several event timers, a
clocked shift register, and an interrupt flag register with an interrupt
enable register.
Normally you won't have to touch the direction registers, since the
Operating System sets them up for you at system startup. A 1 bit in a data
direction register means the corresponding bit of the respective data
register will be used for output, while a 0 bit means it will be used for
input.
Note: For more information on the registers and control structure of the
VIA, consult the technical specifications for the SY6522 chip.
_______________________________________________________________________________
VIA Register A
VIA data register A is at vBase+vBufA. The corresponding data direction
register is at vBase+vDirA.
Bit(s) Name Description
7 vSCCWReq SCC wait/request
6 vPage2 Alternate screen buffer
5 vHeadSel Disk SEL line
4 vOverlay ROM low-memory overlay
3 vSndPg2 Alternate sound buffer
0-2 vSound (mask) Sound volume
The vSCCWReq bit can signal that the SCC has received a character (used to
maintain serial communications during disk accesses, when the CPU's
interrupts from the SCC are disabled). The vPage2 bit controls which screen
buffer is being displayed, and the vHeadSel bit is the SEL control line used
by the disk interface. The vOverlay bit (used only during system startup)
can be used to place another image of ROM at the bottom of memory, where RAM
usually is (RAM moves to $600000). The sound buffer is selected by the
vSndPg2 bit. Finally, the vSound bits control the sound volume.
_______________________________________________________________________________
VIA Register B
VIA data register B is at vBase+vBufB. The corresponding data direction
register is at vBase+vDirB.
Bit Name Description
7 vSndEnb Sound enable/disable
6 vH4 Horizontal blanking
5 vY2 Mouse Y2
4 vX2 Mouse X2
3 vSW Mouse switch
2 rTCEnb Real-time clock serial enable
1 rTCClk Real-time clock data-clock line
0 rTCData Real-time clock serial data
The vSndEnb bit turns the sound generator on or off, and the vH4 bit is set
when the video beam is in its horizontal blanking period. The vY2 and vX2
bits read the quadrature signals from the Y (vertical) and X (horizontal)
directions, respectively, of the mouse's motion lines. The vSW bit reads the
mouse switch. The rTCEnb, rTCClk, and rTCData bits control and read the
real-time clock.
_______________________________________________________________________________
The VIA Peripheral Control Register
The VIA's peripheral control register, at vBase+vPCR, allows you to set some
very low-level parameters (such as positive-edge or negative-edge
triggering) dealing with the keyboard data and clock interrupts, the
one-second real-time clock interrupt line, and the vertical blanking
interrupt.
Bit(s) Description
5-7 Keyboard data interrupt control
4 Keyboard clock interrupt control
1-3 One-second interrupt control
0 Vertical blanking interrupt control
_______________________________________________________________________________
The VIA Timers
The timers controlled by the VIA are called timer 1 and timer 2. Timer 1 is
used to time various events having to do with the Macintosh sound generator.
Timer 2 is used by the Disk Driver to time disk I/O events. If either timer
isn't being used by the Operating System, you're free to use it for your own
purposes. When a timer counts down to 0, an interrupt will be generated if
the proper interrupt enable has been set. See the Device Manager chapter for
information about writing your own interrupt handlers.
To start one of the timers, store the appropriate values in the high- and
low-order bytes of the timer counter (or the timer 1 latches, for multiple
use of the value). The counters and latches are at the following locations:
Location Contents
vBase+vT1C Timer 1 counter (low-order byte)
vBase+vT1CH Timer 1 counter (high-order byte)
vBase+vT1L Timer 1 latch (low-order byte)
vBase+vT1LH Timer 1 latch (high-order byte)
vBase+vT2C Timer 2 counter (low-order byte)
vBase+vT2CH Timer 2 counter (high-order byte)
Note: When setting a timer, it's not enough to simply store a full word
to the high-order address, because the high- and low-order bytes of
the counters are not adjacent. You must explicitly do two stores,
one for the high-order byte and one for the low-order byte.
_______________________________________________________________________________
VIA Interrupts
The VIA (through its IRQ line) can cause a level-1 processor interrupt
whenever one of the following occurs: Timer 1 or timer 2 times out; the
keyboard is clocking a bit in through its serial port; the shift register
for the keyboard serial interface has finished shifting in or out; the
vertical blanking interval is beginning; or the one-second clock has ticked.
For more information on how to use these interrupts, see the Device Manager
chapter.
The interrupt flag register at vBase+vIFR contains flag bits that are set
whenever the interrupt corresponding to that bit has occurred. The Operating
System uses these flags to determine which device has caused an interrupt.
Bit 7 of the interrupt flag register is not really a flag: It remains set
(and the IRQ line to the processor is held low) as long as any enabled VIA
interrupt is occurring.
Bit Interrupting device
7 IRQ (all enabled VIA interrupts)
6 Timer 1
5 Timer 2
4 Keyboard clock
3 Keyboard data bit
2 Keyboard data ready
1 Vertical blanking interrupt
0 One-second interrupt
The interrupt enable register, at vBase+vIER, lets you enable or disable any
of these interrupts. If an interrupt is disabled, its bit in the interrupt
flag register will continue to be set whenever that interrupt occurs, but it
won't affect the IRQ flag, nor will it interrupt the processor.
The bits in the interrupt enable register are arranged just like those in
the interrupt flag register, except for bit 7. When you write to the
interrupt enable register, bit 7 is "enable/disable": If bit 7 is a 1, each
1 in bits 0-6 enables the corresponding interrupt; if bit 7 is a 0, each 1
in bits 0-6 disables that interrupt. In either case, 0's in bits 0-6 do not
change the status of those interrupts. Bit 7 is always read as a 1.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Other VIA Registers
The shift register, at vBase+vSR, contains the eight bits of data that have
been shifted in or that will be shifted out over the keyboard data line.
The auxiliary control register, at vBase+vACR, is described in the SY6522
documentation. It controls various parameters having to do with the timers
and the shift register.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY System.Startup
+ C SYSTEM STARTUP MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
When power is first supplied to the Macintosh, a carefully orchestrated
sequence of events takes place.
First, the processor is held in a wait state while a series of circuits gets
the system ready for operation. The VIA and IWM are initialized, and the
mapping of ROM and RAM are altered temporarily by setting the overlay bit in
VIA data register A. This places the ROM starting at the normal ROM
location $400000, and a duplicate image of the same ROM starting at address
0 (where RAM normally is), while RAM is placed starting at $600000. Under
this mapping, the Macintosh software executes out of the normal ROM
locations above $400000, but the MC68000 can obtain some critical low-memory
vectors from the ROM image it finds at address 0.
Next, a memory test and several other system tests take place. After the
system is fully tested and initialized, the software clears the VIA's
overlay bit, mapping the system RAM back where it belongs, starting at
address 0. Then the disk startup process begins.
First the internal disk is checked: If there's a disk inserted, the system
attempts to read it. If no disk is in the internal drive and there's an
external drive with an inserted disk, the system will try to read that one.
Otherwise, the question-mark disk icon is displayed until a disk is
inserted. If the disk startup fails for some reason, the "sad Macintosh"
icon is displayed and the Macintosh goes into an endless loop until it's
turned off again.
Once a readable disk has been inserted, the first two sectors (containing
the system startup blocks) are read in and the normal disk load begins.
_______________________________________________________________________________
+ KY Summary of the Macintosh Hardware
+ C SUMMARY OF THE MACINTOSH HARDWARE MacintoshHardware
_______________________________________________________________________________
Warning: This information applies only to the Macintosh 128K, 512K,
not to the Macintosh XL.
Constants
; VIA base addresses
vBase .EQU $EFE1FE ;main base for VIA chip (in variable VIA)
aVBufB .EQU vBase ;register B base
aVBufA .EQU $EFFFFE ;register A base
aVBufM .EQU aVBufB ;register containing mouse signals
aVIFR .EQU $EFFBFE ;interrupt flag register
aVIER .EQU $EFFDFE ;interrupt enable register
; Offsets from vBase
vBufB .EQU 512*0 ;register B (zero offset)
vDirB .EQU 512*2 ;register B direction register
vDirA .EQU 512*3 ;register A direction register
vT1C .EQU 512*4 ;timer 1 counter (low-order byte)
vT1CH .EQU 512*5 ;timer 1 counter (high-order byte)
vT1L .EQU 512*6 ;timer 1 latch (low-order byte)
vT1LH .EQU 512*7 ;timer 1 latch (high-order byte)
vT2C .EQU 512*8 ;timer 2 counter (low-order byte)
vT2CH .EQU 512*9 ;timer 2 counter (high-order byte)
vSR .EQU 512*10 ;shift register (keyboard)
vACR .EQU 512*11 ;auxiliary control register
vPCR .EQU 512*12 ;peripheral control register
vIFR .EQU 512*13 ;interrupt flag register
vIER .EQU 512*14 ;interrupt enable register
vBufA .EQU 512*15 ;register A
; VIA register A constants
vAOut .EQU $7F ;direction register A: 1 bits = outputs
vAInit .EQU $7B ;initial value for vBufA (medium volume)
vSound .EQU 7 ;sound volume bits
; VIA register A bit numbers
vSndPg2 .EQU 3 ;0 = alternate sound buffer
vOverlay .EQU 4 ;1 = ROM overlay (system startup only)
vHeadSel .EQU 5 ;disk SEL control line
vPage2 .EQU 6 ;0 = alternate screen buffer
vSCCWReq .EQU 7 ;SCC wait/request line
; VIA register B constants
vBOut .EQU $87 ;direction register B: 1 bits = outputs
vBInit .EQU $07 ;initial value for vBufB
; VIA register B bit numbers
rTCData .EQU 0 ;real-time clock serial data line
rTCClk .EQU 1 ;real-time clock data-clock line
rTCEnb .EQU 2 ;real-time clock serial enable
vSW .EQU 3 ;0 = mouse button is down
vX2 .EQU 4 ;mouse X quadrature level
vY2 .EQU 5 ;mouse Y quadrature level
vH4 .EQU 6 ;1 = horizontal blanking
vSndEnb .EQU 7 ;0 = sound enabled, 1 = disabled
; SCC base addresses
sccRBase .EQU $9FFFF8 ;SCC base read address (in variable SCCRd)
sccWBase .EQU $BFFFF9 ;SCC base write address (in variable SCCWr)
; Offsets from SCC base addresses
aData .EQU 6 ;channel A data in or out
aCtl .EQU 2 ;channel A control
bData .EQU 4 ;channel B data in or out
bCtl .EQU 0 ;channel B control
; Bit numbers for control register RR0
rxBF .EQU 0 ;1 = SCC receive buffer full
txBE .EQU 2 ;1 = SCC send buffer empty
; IWM base address
dBase .EQU $DFE1FF ;IWM base address (in variable IWM)
; Offsets from dBase
ph0L .EQU 512*0 ;CA0 off (0)
ph0H .EQU 512*1 ;CA0 on (1)
ph1L .EQU 512*2 ;CA1 off (0)
ph1H .EQU 512*3 ;CA1 on (1)
ph2L .EQU 512*4 ;CA2 off (0)
ph2H .EQU 512*5 ;CA2 on (1)
ph3L .EQU 512*6 ;LSTRB off (low)
ph3H .EQU 512*7 ;LSTRB on (high)
mtrOff .EQU 512*8 ;disk enable off
mtrOn .EQU 512*9 ;disk enable on
intDrive .EQU 512*10 ;select internal drive
extDrive .EQU 512*11 ;select external drive
q6L .EQU 512*12 ;Q6 off
q6H .EQU 512*13 ;Q6 on
q7L .EQU 512*14 ;Q7 off
q7H .EQU 512*15 ;Q7 on
; Screen and sound addresses for 512K Macintosh (will also work
; for 128K, since addresses wrap)
screenLow .EQU $7A700 ;top left corner of main screen buffer
soundLow .EQU $7FD00 ;main sound buffer (in variable SoundBase)
pwmBuffer .EQU $7FD01 ;main disk speed buffer
ovlyRAM .EQU $600000 ;RAM start address when overlay is set
ovlyScreen .EQU $67A700 ;screen start with overlay set
romStart .EQU $400000 ;ROM start address (in variable ROMBase)
Constants (Macintosh Plus Only)
; SCSI base addresses
scsiRd .EQU $580000 ;base address for read operations
scsiWr .EQU $580001 ;base address for write operations
; SCSI offsets for DACK
dackRd .EQU $200 ;for use with sOCR and sIDR
dackWr .EQU $200 ;for use with sOCR and sIDR
; SCSI offsets to NCR 5380 register
sCDR .EQU $00 ;Current SCSI Read Data (read)
sOCR .EQU $00 ;Output Data Register (write)
sICR .EQU $10 ;Initiator Command Register (read/write)
sMR .EQU $20 ;Mode Register (read/write)
sTCR .EQU $30 ;Target Command Register (read/write)
sCSR .EQU $40 ;Current SCSI Bus Status (read)
sSER .EQU $40 ;Select Enable Register (write)
sBSR .EQU $50 ;Bus & Status Register (read)
sDMAtx .EQU $50 ;DMA Transmit Start (write)
sIDR .EQU $60 ;Data input register (read)
sTDMArx .EQU $60 ;Start Target DMA receive (write)
sRESET .EQU $70 ;Reset Parity/Interrupt (read)
sIDMArx .EQU $70 ;Start Initiator DMA receive (write)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Variables
ROMBase Base address of ROM
SoundBase Address of main sound buffer
SCCRd SCC read base address
SCCWr SCC write base address
IWM IWM base address
VIA VIA base address
_______________________________________________________________________________
Exception Vectors
Location Purpose
$00 Reset: initial stack pointer (not a vector)
$04 Reset: initial vector
$08 Bus error
$0C Address error
$10 Illegal instruction
$14 Divide by zero
$18 CHK instruction
$1C TRAPV instruction
$20 Privilege violation
$24 Trace interrupt
$28 Line 1010 emulator
$2C Line 1111 emulator
$30-$3B Unassigned (reserved)
$3C Uninitialized interrupt
$40-$5F Unassigned (reserved)
$60 Spurious interrupt
$64 VIA interrupt
$68 SCC interrupt
$6C VIA+SCC vector (temporary)
$70 Interrupt switch
$74 Interrupt switch + VIA
$78 Interrupt switch + SCC
$7C Interrupt switch + VIA + SCC
$80-$BF TRAP instructions
$C0-$FF Unassigned (reserved)
Further Reference:
_______________________________________________________________________________
Device Manager
SCSI Manager
Vertical Retrace Manager
"Macintosh Family Hardware Reference"
"Designing Cards and Drivers for the Macintosh II and Macintosh SE"
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